Ahmed Kamal
Numerous rivers and canals, including the major river systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and the Meghna and 230 smaller rivers totalling 55,000 kilometers in length meander over the vast alluvial plain of Bangladesh. In addition, tiny mountain streams, winding seasonal creeks, lakes and ponds, swamps and marshes complete the water bodies of Bangladesh.
General slope of country – south-south-east – avg. two feet per mile.
Sediments – 1.6 to 2.2 billion metric tons annually – delta area of 60,000 km2.
Average annual rainfall – 150 to 500 cm.
Agriculture and irrigation dependent almost entirely on annual rainfall.
ANCIENT PERIOD (4th cent BC – 12th cent AD)
Construction of canals – for irrigation
Maintenance of canals, tanks – community responsibility
System of overflow irrigation of the Ganges used by early Bengal kings:
CANALS
- Canals were broad and shallow, carrying overflow water of river floods, rich in fine clay and free of coarse sand.
- Canals were long and continuous, fairly parallel to each other, and spaced out to allow irrigation.
- Irrigation performed by cuts in the banks of the canals, which were closed when the floods were over.
- Red silt from upland canals were distributed by overflow over wide areas to create fertile land for traditional rice monoculture.
SULTANATE PERIOD + MUGHAL PERIOD (13th – 16th cent AD)
Respect for ancient method of canals.
Rulers built series of embankments and bridges to protect their cities and capital from flooding and becoming waterlogged.
Grand Trunk Road – 150 miles long, built with multiple purposes of flood control, irrigation, communication and military manoeuvres
Large parts of southern Bengal came under cultivation due to flood control dafter (law). Husbandry developed to a great extent due to these initiatives.
Great importance given to regular maintenance of bridges, roads, embankments and other water works
Onus on zamindars (landowners) to ensure regular maintenance of water works. Organisational structure for building and repairing water works was of a hierarchical nature.
TANKS
Special interest towards building of tanks
Tanks believed to be the most suitable method for managing flood and irrigation. Tanks contained water during the rainy season and supplied water for irrigation during the dry season.
Banks of tanks used for village settlement above flood level.
Land used for digging tanks was rent-free.
Excavation of tanks was recognised as a deed of piety and was often associated with religious ceremonies.
MUGHAL PERIOD
Mughal technology of flood and irrigation management concentrated more on the distribution of waters through arteries of planned canals and embankments between the great rivers, than the digging of deep tanks.
Water was controlled and made available to husbandmen through a maze of channels.
River dredging introduced.
Mughal provincial government maintained independent pulbandi dafter (public works department). Varieties of taxes levied to for various public works.
Eg. Tolls on users of rivers; inter-district trading boats, tolls used for improvement and maintenance of hats and bazaars and river system.
SYNTHESIS
Pre-colonial regimes singled out agriculture as the basis of their power. Therefore high priority was given to water management and all possible measures taken to improve husbandry and protect crops from preventable natural calamities. Roads, embankments, bridges and canals were constructed with a view to achieving proper preservation and distribution of water in a region of floods and droughts.
COLONIAL PERIOD (1757 – 1947)
Ignorance of traditional relation and dependence of water systems
New land ownership systems fixed land revenue in perpetuity and aimed at developing private ownership of land – dissociated ownership from actual use of land. Gap created between zamindars and cultivators
Zamindars were mostly absentees – had no interest in development of land – hence investment lacking in water management sector.
Revenue charged on making of tanks. Burdened the primary land cultivator, Tank building activity completely stopped
No respect or perpetuation of traditional water management systems. Constant annual flooding begins.
Introduction of railways further aggravated flooding.
POST-COLONIAL PERIOD (1947 on)
Long neglect of river systems – waterlogging, drainage, salinity, silting up of river beds and canals, sudden change in course of rivers prevalent condition in Bengal
Taking stock of conditions of rivers, rivulets, canals, marshes, ditches and drains – several canals silted up, rivers dead
Local floods leading to loss of annual crop loss – aggravating food shortage in country
Salinity .in coastal Khulna rivers – needed urgent embankment measures.
Neglect over time of water management caused several problems – embankments, reservoirs and tanks declined. Rivers were allowed to become silted. Chars (small islands) were never removed. Works left to the mercy of nature. Cumulative result was frequent flooding.
GOVERNMENT MEASURES
Heavy dependence on international aid
Large scale infrastructure projects such as road building carried out over measures to correct irrigation infrastructure.
Dredging fleets from Holland ordered and operated at huge costs.
Large-scale irrigation projects initiated but with little respite at local level.
Public agitation towards government actions- largely squashed by heavy-arm tactics of the government and military
CONCLUSION
It seems important to understand and re-instate/ re-work traditional methods of land-water management.
Re-establish the connection between people and their land by modifying the present situation of state governed elitist, centralised, technology-dependent development.
Re-establish community-driven water management systems.
Numerous rivers and canals, including the major river systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and the Meghna and 230 smaller rivers totalling 55,000 kilometers in length meander over the vast alluvial plain of Bangladesh. In addition, tiny mountain streams, winding seasonal creeks, lakes and ponds, swamps and marshes complete the water bodies of Bangladesh.
General slope of country – south-south-east – avg. two feet per mile.
Sediments – 1.6 to 2.2 billion metric tons annually – delta area of 60,000 km2.
Average annual rainfall – 150 to 500 cm.
Agriculture and irrigation dependent almost entirely on annual rainfall.
ANCIENT PERIOD (4th cent BC – 12th cent AD)
Construction of canals – for irrigation
Maintenance of canals, tanks – community responsibility
System of overflow irrigation of the Ganges used by early Bengal kings:
CANALS
- Canals were broad and shallow, carrying overflow water of river floods, rich in fine clay and free of coarse sand.
- Canals were long and continuous, fairly parallel to each other, and spaced out to allow irrigation.
- Irrigation performed by cuts in the banks of the canals, which were closed when the floods were over.
- Red silt from upland canals were distributed by overflow over wide areas to create fertile land for traditional rice monoculture.
SULTANATE PERIOD + MUGHAL PERIOD (13th – 16th cent AD)
Respect for ancient method of canals.
Rulers built series of embankments and bridges to protect their cities and capital from flooding and becoming waterlogged.
Grand Trunk Road – 150 miles long, built with multiple purposes of flood control, irrigation, communication and military manoeuvres
Large parts of southern Bengal came under cultivation due to flood control dafter (law). Husbandry developed to a great extent due to these initiatives.
Great importance given to regular maintenance of bridges, roads, embankments and other water works
Onus on zamindars (landowners) to ensure regular maintenance of water works. Organisational structure for building and repairing water works was of a hierarchical nature.
TANKS
Special interest towards building of tanks
Tanks believed to be the most suitable method for managing flood and irrigation. Tanks contained water during the rainy season and supplied water for irrigation during the dry season.
Banks of tanks used for village settlement above flood level.
Land used for digging tanks was rent-free.
Excavation of tanks was recognised as a deed of piety and was often associated with religious ceremonies.
MUGHAL PERIOD
Mughal technology of flood and irrigation management concentrated more on the distribution of waters through arteries of planned canals and embankments between the great rivers, than the digging of deep tanks.
Water was controlled and made available to husbandmen through a maze of channels.
River dredging introduced.
Mughal provincial government maintained independent pulbandi dafter (public works department). Varieties of taxes levied to for various public works.
Eg. Tolls on users of rivers; inter-district trading boats, tolls used for improvement and maintenance of hats and bazaars and river system.
SYNTHESIS
Pre-colonial regimes singled out agriculture as the basis of their power. Therefore high priority was given to water management and all possible measures taken to improve husbandry and protect crops from preventable natural calamities. Roads, embankments, bridges and canals were constructed with a view to achieving proper preservation and distribution of water in a region of floods and droughts.
COLONIAL PERIOD (1757 – 1947)
Ignorance of traditional relation and dependence of water systems
New land ownership systems fixed land revenue in perpetuity and aimed at developing private ownership of land – dissociated ownership from actual use of land. Gap created between zamindars and cultivators
Zamindars were mostly absentees – had no interest in development of land – hence investment lacking in water management sector.
Revenue charged on making of tanks. Burdened the primary land cultivator, Tank building activity completely stopped
No respect or perpetuation of traditional water management systems. Constant annual flooding begins.
Introduction of railways further aggravated flooding.
POST-COLONIAL PERIOD (1947 on)
Long neglect of river systems – waterlogging, drainage, salinity, silting up of river beds and canals, sudden change in course of rivers prevalent condition in Bengal
Taking stock of conditions of rivers, rivulets, canals, marshes, ditches and drains – several canals silted up, rivers dead
Local floods leading to loss of annual crop loss – aggravating food shortage in country
Salinity .in coastal Khulna rivers – needed urgent embankment measures.
Neglect over time of water management caused several problems – embankments, reservoirs and tanks declined. Rivers were allowed to become silted. Chars (small islands) were never removed. Works left to the mercy of nature. Cumulative result was frequent flooding.
GOVERNMENT MEASURES
Heavy dependence on international aid
Large scale infrastructure projects such as road building carried out over measures to correct irrigation infrastructure.
Dredging fleets from Holland ordered and operated at huge costs.
Large-scale irrigation projects initiated but with little respite at local level.
Public agitation towards government actions- largely squashed by heavy-arm tactics of the government and military
CONCLUSION
It seems important to understand and re-instate/ re-work traditional methods of land-water management.
Re-establish the connection between people and their land by modifying the present situation of state governed elitist, centralised, technology-dependent development.
Re-establish community-driven water management systems.
No comments:
Post a Comment