Preparation for structure plan, master plan and detailed area plan for Khulna City by KDA

(The following are parts of a study done by the KDA)

Analysis at three levels for the city of Khulna:

National, regional and local.

National context:

Export structure has undergone major transformation in which jute has been replaced by ready-made garments

Informal economy:informal activities in the cities in Bangladesh are expanding at rapid rate. Through these informal activities, the small entrepreneurs maintain vital links between the rural and urban areas as well as other forms of backward and forward linkages. In the absence of such informal sector, the formal sector of the urban area could not provide employment to such large number of labour force.

Infrastructure: The present trend of urbanization and macro economic characteristics in the country and the role of urban sector in the GDP suggest that the urban sector will play a dominant role in the national development. In particular construction of the Bangabandhu Jamuna Bridge, other bridges and an excellent road network system throughout the country will boost the emergence and development of growth centres, semi-urban centres and strengthen the rural-urban continuum in the country. Such a situation will lead to further growth of the cities, particularly the big ones like Khulna. Thus Khulna will have to be ready to accommodate increased population and provide required services to these (migrants) additional people.

The KDA believes that migration will occur towards Khulna thus the city will grow.

Performance of Khulna at the regional level

The city of Khulna serves the whole south-western region of the country in terms of providing transport and trade network, port facilities, producing industrial goods, and providing health and educational facilities. The region of Khulna is rich in terms of raw materials and cheap labour force for industries. Khulna region contributes to about 82 percent of the shrimp production and 74 percent of the shrimp farms. Eight percent of the nation’s export earnings come from shrimps and frozen food which is mainly concentrated in the Khulna region. The export is mainly done through Mongla port.

The KDA assumes that in the future, Khulna will continue to play the economic role that it is playing now. The KDA also assumes that its manufacturing sector will be further expanded, if required infrastructure, policy support including credits and investment opportunities are given. New industries can also be set up in appropriate locations.

Strong agricultural base around Khulna city: the hinterland of Khulna is highly rich in production of paddy, vegetables and horticulture of several varieties.

Local context

Traditionally Khulna city has been functioning as a large employment centre. Despite the fact that many industrial units have become sick.

The KDA assumes that prospects for employment will rise with the completion of Rupsha Bridge and the possible installation of gas grid. The study team also assumes that decentralization of administration and industry and gradual incentives of investment away from Dhaka will facilitate economic activities and generate employment in cities like Khulna. (national policy)

Forecast for private investment is extremely difficult because of lack of data and stability.

Housing: there is at this time no shortage of housing in Khulna but it lacks quality. (illegal housing ?)

spatial manifestation of social norms

Bangladesh Fight from Partition to Liberation

• The partition of the Indian Subcontinent in 1947 created two independent countries: India and Pakistan. India, which became independent on 15 August 1947, stood for a secular, equitable polity based on the universally accepted idea that all men are created equal and should be treated as such. Pakistan, which officially came into existence a day earlier, was based on the premise that Hindus and Muslims of the Subcontinent constitute two different nationalities and cannot co-exist. East Pakistan (Bangladesh) has been subjected to colonial rule and exploitation by a power-mad minority which has built up an authoritarian pattern of government even in the metropolitan area the West Pakistan. But East Bengal was never a sub nation, not only does it has a majority of Muslims but also shaped into national identity. Pakistan always claims East Bengal to be its province; a dictatorial regime in the metropolitan country which used the argument of religious affinity to bolster its claim to colonial domination over a distinct and different people. JINNAH-his political capital was the Indo-Muslim consciousness and his political outlook was all-Indian largely because of the nature of the all-India Muslim league. This league readily accepted the cabinet mission plan of 1946 promising to create a loose conferral structure in India. He created an impossible problem of identity (image of absurd state created by British before their withdrawal in 1947) for the new state-a problem of identity which successive governments tried to resolve in terms of a nationalism based on religion and sustained by unabated hostility towards India. East Bengal was represented in the constitutional assembly of Pakistan by the hard core conservative elements of the Muslim league including a number of members from India. The Indo-Muslims migrant elite succeeded in holding the two wings of Pakistan by manipulating the Indo-Islamic consciousness created in 1947. The attitude of the West Pakistan to the East Pakistan was so hard that they couldn’t accept Bengali as their national language and visa versa, and resulted in a violent agitation when the Basic Principle Committee recommended urdu as the national language. The USA and the West supported Pakistan with enormous military support which was not supported by the Bengalis as they had less support in bureaucracy and military. Caught between the pressure exerted by the army, bureaucracy, and no support of the people below the politicians of Pakistan lost their grip over the situation and functioned for personal interest rather than larger cause which resulted in the military coup in Oct 1958. The entire benefit of the industrial dev. in Pakistan was limited to only 20 families, this in equitability and oppressive economic structure was not only limited to Pakistan but also East Bengal. this exposed some hidden aspects of the west Pakistani colonialism to the East Bengal also resulted the east Pakistan without defense when the war broke out in 1965 and resulted in the launch of the ‘Agartala Conspiracy Case’ against the leaders. The rise of freedom threw up issues like the internal colonization of some new states, overlooked by the status quo oriented in the international system in order to preserve tenuous system of states in the world. The process of East Pakistan’s isolation was underway when the elections in the East Bengal turned out to be a referendum on the Awami League’s six-point charter of autonomy rather than voter’s choice. The league began immediately after the partition as the revolt of East Bengal’s infant but growing middle-class against the rule of well-entrenched alliance of the top echelons of the army, the bureaucracy and monopoly based in the West Pakistan. One thing is clear that the Pakistan as conceived by Jinnah as one is dead without any chance of correction. Few things getting clear for the future character of East Bengal;
• long freedom struggle waged with help of indigenous support both in terms of human and resources.
• the resistance movement is bound to take a guerilla warfare.
• the actual organization and operation to come into the hands of dedicated and visionary leaders having an ideology to fight against heavy odds.
• the guerilla movement would form a firm base under control of liberation force having located somewhere in north of Bangladesh.
• the remnants of East Pakistan rifles and East Bengal regiment could combine to form the Mukti Fouj which would gradually mix into the general political culture of the guerilla movement.

Wind, Water and Clay: The Architecture of Bangladesh

by Kazi Khaleed Ashraf

The article describes the Bengal architectural evolution chronologically through history

1. General Introduction

The Bengal Delta is in between “two geo-cultural matrices”: the western matrix, based on the Indian culture and the eastern matrix, relying on South-East Asian cultures (dominantly water-based cultures)
Hut = a freestanding structure, composed of a parasol roof and permeable walls; it is the simplest form of the pavilion type and the basis of Bengal architecture
Clay is the traditional building material: bricks and terra-cotta

2. Chronological Overview

2.1. In the 6th c.BC monumental architecture includes temples, stupas and monasteries, largely influenced by the Buddhist tradition

2.2. The arrival of the Turks is marked by the influence of Islam on architecture: Sultani period (13th c.)
dual situation: submission to the Delhi regime or independent rule of ‘houses’ which represent the connectedness to the place
Sultani architecture: mosque, mazar, madrasa and new techniques such as arch and dome
Bengali mosque = most significant type of this period
· basis = pavilion/hut idea
· use of local materials such as bricks and terra cotta
· openness and relation with the surrounding landscape is important: the mosques are opened to the outside instead of looking inward to a closed courtyard

2.3. Laukik (vernacular) Bengali culture (15th – 16th c.)
Islam affected deeply the cultural matrix of Bengal. It was the impetus for the flourishing of the vernacular stream (domain of the plebeians, villagers, local beliefs and rituals), while the Sanskritic tradition was in decline. At the same time the Muslim culture enters into a dynamic relationship with the laukik culture. An "osmotic relationship" between the two communities resulted in specific Bengali architecture: an example is the mosque of Shah Mohammad in Eagarasindur (17th c.) The hut was again at the basis of the development of the Bengali mosque (and chala form) and later on also of the tomb-shrine.

2.4. Mughal empire (16th - late 18th c.)
Formation of the province of Bengal (Subah-e-Bangla) -> Delhi-centred authority interupted the laukik culture:
· interest in provinces for economic reasons -> establishment of efficient administrative system (road and fort construction), but there are some evidences of Mughal influence in mosques (different plan type...) and later the temple-building flourished.
· the traditional practices, building techniques and materials and vernacular iconography are mainly ignored, an exception is the privilege given to the bangla roof.

2.5. Colonialism (late 18th + 19th c.)
contact with European culture => new civic institutions + segregated dual city

· European city = “progress and development”
· native city = “congested and chaotic”

new economic structure => building activities => new types: offices, railway, warehouses … but some original architecture persists: bungalow = a building type which is a reconfiguration of the hut
· idea of connection with surrounding nature + freestanding dwelling is preserved
· climate and local idioms are primary considerations in the development of new forms
New Bengal elite elaborates a complex relationship of resistance and acceptance with colonial culture => architecture of their homes: severe neo-Classical style combined with a great degree of spontaneity in the disposition of volumes
Palaces (tension between ‘publicity’ and ‘domesticity’) and religious buildings were also site of Europeanization.

2.6. Modernism (20th c.)
double-edged nature of the colonial experience becomes noticeable:

1 mercantilism + industrialization => breakdown of self-sufficient cultural entities -> increasing influence of international modernist ideology ("modern project")
2 idea of cultural and national identity -> movement for independence

2 important names:
· Muzharul Islam, establisher of a modern architectural culture
“the lessons of European modernism were mediated and manipulated by “localism”, the rationale of place and time”
· Louis Kahn,

Capital Complex project with the Assembly as the crown piece (character of the centre)

overall master plan, reflections on "how the buildings are to take their place on the land": particular urban morphology in the delta

3. Conclusion: "Wind, Water and Clay"

Architectural history is contestation between competing ideologies; however the consciousness of nature is at the root of building. The hut-type recurs through history and changes. It is also the basis of the pavilion paradigm: interpenetration of nature and architecture -> key to the organization of settlement pattern.

Historical growth:
1884-1947: Khulna City had little prospects for growth.
1947: After the partition of India and the liberation of Bangladesh: migration of Indians to, what then was ‘East-Pakistan’. By 1951 the population was fourfold.
1950’s – 1960’s: Khulna became an important centre for industrial development: new port and commercial activities increased. Jute-based industries contributed to the national economy, created new employment and led to urbanization.
1971: After political changes the industrial boom was over, industrial growth couldn’t keep up with population growth, the city started declining.
1990: Reviving economy mainly due to shrimp-farming and the development of a new University.

Khulna is a linear city parallel to the Rupsha-Bhairab rivers. The expansion in east-west direction is limited due to geo-environmental conditions. Environmentally it’s a low-risk area but any rise in the sea level can affect the land. The area, {population of a million (1998)}, has potentials, the important link to the second harbour and the shrimp farming activities, but are not well exploited due to lack of strategic infrastructure, investments and political commitments. Khulna has a low employment rate with an income of $283 a year/capita. 14% of the households are below the hardcore poverty line. The land market is dominated by the private sector, while a large amount of land is owned by the public sector that remains mostly unutilized, so land market is not supporting the urban development. Physical planning and development, like providing services, are in the hands of different organisations, which lack good management and coordination. Khulna has 0.07 acres of open space per 1000 population. Extensive water pollution, mainly arsenic, leads to a scarcity of drinking water.

Determinants of landuse:
Transport network: The main transport ways (river, road and railway) go parallel from north to south and dictate the major use of land.
Economic opportunities: In the past: centred on the port and industrial activities along the rivers. Now: shrimp farming and educational activities are gaining importance.
Land value: Because of the physical growth and the rise of land value a large part of the population and small/medium scale enterprises shift to informal settlements in the low cost fringe areas.

Major features of landuse.
Residential use of land is dominant. In the built up areas the mixed middle and low-income residential areas cover nearly 49%, leaving 10% for other type of residential use. The residential population density varies from 346 to +480 persons a hectare. Most residential areas were not planned, so at least 18% of the people live in squatter settlements.
Commercial: 3.35% of the urbanised area is commercial existing of a major CBD, called ‘Bara Bazar’ and some small commercial zones.
Industrial structure: The heavy industrial activities, mostly situated along the river banks, are jute, brick fields and export oriented fish industries in the south. Small type industries are scattered throughout the city.
Administrative zone: There are two major concentrations of administrative and institutional use. The University and the Bangladesh Railway are two of the larges institutions.

Muzharul Islam. An architect in Bangladesh

Muzharul Islam. An Architect in Bangladesh.

After independence of Pakistan, Islam was the only formally trained architect working in Dhaka, with degrees from Calcutta University, Oregon University and Yale.
The 1950’s and 60’s were turbulent times, with the split of the country in East and West Pakistan, later on followed by the independence in 1971. It was the beginning of a search of self-identity and a significant era in the architectural realm. Despite the chaos, it was in this decade that formal architectural education was established and that important foreign architects like Louis Kahn, Paul Rudolph and Stanley Tigerman produced their works here. The involvement of these 3 architects was mainly due to Musharul Islam. Rudolph was invited in 1966 to prepare a Master Plan and to design buildings of the Agricultural University at Mymensingh. Interesting is the encounter between architectural ideology, mainly developed in the West, and conditions that are often totally different from their original milieu. In 1959 the decision was made to make Dhaka a ‘second’ capital with the National Parliament. Louis Kahn was invited to make the design of the capital.
Together with Kahn’s capital buildings it is Muzharul Islam’s work which has dominated the early architectural scene in Bangladesh. Islam created the nascent architectural culture of Bangladesh, and tried to fight against government bureaucracy, political domination by engineers and academic sterility. His crucial contribution was his continuous search to formulate a Bengali sense of identity, social needs and cultural imperatives were his focus. At the end of the 1960’s he even became more political active which he saw as a more immediate role to confront social conditions.
In the chaotic times of the 1970’s, after the Liberation war of 1971, there was a breach. Most of the active architects submitted totally to mere profit-making and disunited the building task from real social needs. Islam ended up in some sort of isolation and his aims to come to a new paradigm was not reached.
Even today there are a lot of issues presented to the Bangladeshi architects, and the question still remains how to take on the situation and what should the role of the architect be in order to confront this dilemma of housing and organization of the human environment.

Flood Management

Flood Management Designing the Risks (by Heike Langenbach)

Current and future flood defence requirements are a major challenge for cities not only in terms of technology and economics but also design and aesthetics, because protective dikes impact entire urban spaces

Flood is the most challenging phenomena between edges of city, river, lake and sea shore, this can easily be experienced due to ambiguous and chaos occurs when the two opposite elements clash and results into disaster, destruction of infrastructure and diseases. Although river or water in general is useful for commercial, transportation, and natural landscape in urban context, however mankind effort and search is to ensure the balance between the nature and technology in dealing with flood defence through designing approach.

The introduction of dikes and other technologies has shown failure on ecological and precaution measure to retain the relation between cities, social values and use of river, meanwhile flood management through design approach has to meet challenges of climatic change which has been documented since 19^thc due to increasingly rising of sea level, the danger of climatic conditions forced many cities to develop outline strategies and several alternative to attain the equilibrium of living without flood for cities located alongside rivers, lakes, seas and oceans.

For example “Hamburg needs to adapt and update its flood defence system to current high water marks. With the 2006 architecture Olympics, the city therefore sought new design ideas.”

Beside of new concept and ideas introduced by Zaha Hadid Architect on redesigning Hamburg’s prominent water front by piers, as an alternative for dikes which were used since 1962 after disastrous flood. This can sound great in the sense of aesthetic and prevention but on the other hand is totally an obstruction of natural relationship between land and water, also is a creation of new urban intervention to existing and new sculpture in coherent with urban fabric for sustainability of social activities.

Performance of designing in controlling and managing of flood is not limited by hydraulic engineering, barrier, dikes and piers by itself but can also be by introducing innovative concept using urbanism landscape such as introducing canal, green with specific tree which can function for prevention, aesthetic and purification of water, hence to overcome climatic conditions with friendly environment and achievement of ecological revitalisation as well.

For instead “The fluvial Parc del Besos in Barcelona provides huge public green areas for recreation, when it rains in the mountains, the meadows are under several metres water within hours. Keeping these flood events from becoming fatal traps are the new stairway and ramps, flashing warning panel and standby vehicles to point out imminent danger on time. After the floods the green areas are cleaned up and city life on the river resumes its course.”

Moreover the meeting of city and water at ambiguity space like river banks, it posing the question on how can these interfaces be defined appropriately?, Because the boundaries which creates these differences between the two places inline with the images and altitudes as well as divergent spheres of action, are both in needs of solutions to be a Venetian equilibrium, whereby the categories of various models dealing with flood defence system in designing can be assessed based on ecological manner.

Water History is World History

Introduction: Water History is World History
Tjerje Tvedt & Eva Jacobsson

The text reflects on the control over water in history and the changed relation human and environment in history.

Water control is as old as human society and man has tried to master nature by transforming and controlling water and using it as a source of power.
The authors use the distinction of 3 temporalities in water control based on Braudel:
The événementielle: short-lived dramatic events (large water projects)
Conjoncures: cyclical processes (planning traditions)
La longe durée: historical waves of great length.
The authors stress it is important that water history cuts across these temporalities because when it comes to water, events may have a broader long-term, irreversible impact on both nature and on society.
The prospect of climate change will make water control an even more pressing issue across the world.
Therefore the era of large-scale water control projects is probably not over. They give the example of China and Libie where the exploitation of modern water transfer technology is driven to its maximum.

The text examines the role of water in history and development in the traditions within the social sciences the last 200-year. Historians and other social scientists have long been reluctant to analyse relationships between water landscape and social organization. Historical development has been regarded as a process by which mankind is liberated from nature or from the powers of nature. The separation of nature from society was one prerequisite for regarding nature instrumentally, as a set of passive objects to be exploited.
Within the idea of modernity nature and water landscape was relegated.
According to the authors Karl Wittfogel was the first to developed a theory of history that gave nature a central place within a broad framework of development-orientated, historical materialism, which aroused much criticism.

In the 1990s environmental concern and development pessimism brought about a dissolving of the dichotomy of culture and nature. Historians stressed on how humans negatively affected the vulnerable waterscape and how control over rivers meant power of some people over others. The text compares Richard White’s and Blaine Hardens writing on the Columbia River. To Harden the river is transformed to a man-made machine while White considers the river as an organic machine. He argues by stressing canals and dams are part of the river one can maintain that there is no border between man and nature. According to the authors water is both an actor in its own right but this reality cannot be accessed except through cultural and social lenses. They argue it is important to study both the unnatural and natural history of water disasters.
And they stress on the importance of water control and water management to be based on historical, concrete, empirical knowledge to meet the challenges facing societies in the future. Despite all the differences in time and amongst societies water control is one thing which all people at all times have, had and will always have in common.

Infrastructural Urbanism

J.G. Ballard, Infrastructural Urbanism.

“Think only of essentials: The Physics of the gyroscope, the Flux of Photons, the architecture of Very large structures”

“Infrastructure, in its very nature, is similar to landscape in that it is continually evolving, simultaneously precise and indeterminate and works strategically. It allows multiple authors and accommodates existing conditions and local contingency while maintaining overall functional continuity. Infrastructure constructs the site itself through the division, allocation and construction of surfaces, provision of services to support future programs and establishment of networks for movement, communication and exchange”.

In this article the author explains the evolution of the design process that has past through different stages. It’s a movement that identified and described in different images to show a certain period of development, like moment in which the technical and aesthetic formed a unified whole.

He starts with sequence of three images spanning six decades of the twentieth century.

• 1^st image: an Aircraft Carrier USS Lexington, it is bulk of the craft looms over an invisible horizon, a blank open-mouthed face stares back at the viewer; published 1935, in collection edited by Le Corbusier, the caption reads: “Neptune rises from the sea, crowned with strange garlands, the weapons of mars”.

It presents the instrumentality of advanced engineering design and organization of the forces of production that made construction at this scale possible process. It was fully linked to the war machine but integrated into a meaningful cultural and aesthetic framework, even to the point of establishing continuity with classic mythology.

• 2^nd image: the linear Andrea Doria Foundering off the coast of Nantucket in 1956, (Twenty years after the 1^st image) Recalling to iconic status of the linear in the theories of modern architecture.

These developments cannot separate themselves from architecture movements. The author describes that “although during cold war, the modernist dream of an integration of technology and aesthetics was no longer believable, the social and technical forces of modernity tried detached from the production of images, both in popular and higher culture”.

• 3^rd image: B-24 bomber factory in Forth Worth, Texas.

The implementation of the modernist dream of a rational production was influence of the wartime economy where the standardization of material, bodies and time that allowed such incredibly efficient production.

The effect of this shift toward images and signs is that architecture disciplinary frame shifts. He explains, architecture relationship to its material is however indirect.

Beyond style or formal issues, infrastructural urbanism offers a new model for practice and renewed sense of architecture’s potential to structure the future of the city. It understands architecture as material practice as an activity that works in and among the world of things and not exclusively with meaning and image.

Architecture and urbanism, technique does not belong to an individual but to the discipline as whole. Architecture works with cultural and social variables as well as with physical materials, and capacity to signify is one tool available to the architect working in the city. Architecture is uniquely capable of structuring the city in way not available to practices such as literature, film, politics etc.

The critics on infrastructure Urbanism is retrograde, bordering on fascist. It decries new urbanism as nothing more than conventional sprawl dressed up with superficial stylistic cues.

South Asia Readings

Frampton, Kenneth, South Asian Architecture: In Search of a Future Origin, in: “An Architecture of Independence: the Making of Modern South Asia”, The Architectural League of New York, New York, 1998, pp. 10-12.

In this article, Kenneth Frampton discusses the work exhibited in An Architecture of Independence: The Making of Modern South Asia. Although he starts off by saying that the representation of the large South Asian subcontinent by the work of only four architects “is necessarily biased and full of lacunae”, he continues by stressing the importance of their contributions, as it is “work of the highest quality that further the modernist project while coming to terms with the demands of climate, topography, and indigenous culture.” The (early) work of these architects – Achyut Kanvinde, Muzharul Islam, Balkrishna Doshi and Charles Correa - has been influenced by that of Louis Kahn. The ease by which Kahn’s work was received may be explained by the extent of the Mughal civilization which covered most of South Asia. This civilization, however Islamic, “reinforced the pre-existing South Asian propensity for cosmological, geometrical architecture”.

The exhibited work of Achyut Kanvinde and Muzharul Islam is briefly discussed. Kahn’s work, like the Bangladeshi parliamentary complex, influenced especially the latter – Islam also being “the most overtly political of the architects included in the exhibition.” The early works of Balkrishna Doshi were influenced by Le Corbusier (Chandigarh). In his later works, Doshi “brilliantly” fused this influence with Kahn’s legacy and the Moghul heritage. Doshi, as well as Charles Correa, “demonstrated the general viability of low-rise, high-density housing as a normative form of ecological development”. One of Correa’s well-known early realisations is New Bombay, a project which has known limited success. Later on, the scope of his work shifted from the design and realization of residential fabric to that of “symbolic public buildings”, the symbolic “invariably accompanied by the traditional value that Correa attaches to the concept of ‘open-to-sky-space’”. This shift makes up the mayor difference between Correa and the other architects included in the exhibition.

Mehrotra, Rahul, Introductory Essay: The Architecture of Pluralism – A Century of Building in South Asia, in: Frampton, K. (ed.), “World Architecture: A Critical Mosaic 1900-2000 - Volume 8: South Asia”, Springer-Verlag Wien New York and China Architecture and Building Press, New York, 2000, pp. XVII-XXX.

In this article, Rahul Mehrotra discusses the role of architecture in the South Asian landscape, “a landscape of extreme paradoxes and dramatic transitions”, past and present ones. This role “has not only represented and expressed the contemporary aspirations of a society, but more critically the setting up of crucial counterpoints of showing new ways and preferred realities.” To show this, Mehrotra browses through history (some pages of the article are missing):

• The ‘Indo-Saracenic’ style was preferred by the British in South Asia at the end of the 19^th – beginning of the 20^th century. It was inspired by the Mughal architecture: “an architecture of synthesis ‘reassembling’ components from all over South Asia”, as to create “a composite identity for the region in validation of the colonial boundaries”.
• Between 1900 and 1940, there was a constant tussle between (suggested) modernist (internationalism, Art Deco, ‘minimal’ Ghandian architecture) and revivalist ideas (folk tradition). The latter one first gained currency in nationalist circles as it was most clearly opposed to ‘western decadence and imperialism’. Later on, modernism prevailed under Nehru as to fulfil a new (nationalist) social agenda (e.g. Chandigarh).
• By the 1970s, the search for regional (instead of national) identity came into prominence. Out of this, “a ‘regionalism’ with a play between modernity and traditional vocabulary emerged as the focus of the profession in South Asia.” This architecture now can be considered as “a middle path between global corporate architecture and religion driven fundamentalism (that takes refuge in icons, methods and building practices of the ancients)”.

Khulna City: a general introduction

GENERAL:

- Khulna is the 3rd largest city and 2nd largest sea port of Bangladesh
- the city is developed on artificially raised lands

CLIMATE

DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
- British period: agriculture --> market place
- 1904: Calcutta - Jessore - Khulna railway opened
- 1947: partition --> Muslim refugees India --> Bangladesh
- sea port: became nerve centre of jute trade of Bangladesh
- 1965: Calcutta riots: more Muslims India à Bangladesh + migration from rural areas
> population grew rapidly which induced problems

industrial development:

60s ↑
70s ↓ but population kept ↑
≠ industrial employment

POPULATION
density

migrants
- 53%
- main causes are poverty, famine, natural hazards and unemployment
- tendency to stay in Khulna
- most migrants are very young, unmarries men of whom 1/3 is illiterate

LANDUSE




summary of: CUS report, Chapter II Khulna City: general introduction, in: “Population and Migration Characteristics in Khulna City”, Khulna: CUS report, 1981.

Summary: Colonial Urban Morphologies

Colonial Urban Morphologies
Mowla, Q.A.

Introduction

The city morphology should be studied through different fasing of development and evolution.
Eg. In Singapore, there is a strict segregation of ethnic groups and some of these patterns are still present.

Typology of colonization

The typology differs because of different factors: territory, time etc., for that, it is difficult to come to a general pattern. We can try to categorize them in broad categories: colonial growth, indigenous growth or both (Dhaka).

Context of evolution

The characteristics of the urban morphology can be divided into 2 groups:
1 cluster of settlements on the basis of tribe (Dhaka)
2 gated street, market village with open space, narrow paths crossing a main axes

Impact of colonization

Sources of impact
· Show power to local ruler (with architecture)
· Grid pattern of fortified chessboard with colonizers and indigenous separated

Development of pattern
Start by implementing small element in city centre square, mostly there is a second centre, making the separation between colonizers’ and indigenous’ atmosphere (quiet to more chaotic)
Mostly functional mixture, except French colonisation

Urban Morphology under Spanish Colonisation
Walled, grid with a plaza mayor and plaza de armas, colonizers inside walls becomes congested and strive away along river edges and shores.

Spanish Colonial Policy
They integrated social, religious, economy and politics transformations because of the lack of resistance.
Ethnic minorities in the urban fabric
There was mostly a buffer created between Spanish and Chinese immigrants out of fear, they remained therefore quite independent (the immigrants)

Urban Morphology under British and French

Many third world cities influenced and due to what has been said before there were differences between characteristics because of changes in colonisation.

Colonial Policy
Important to involve ‘middle class’ (eg. Indians with English thinking)
No interference = no extra costs
Assimilation (forcing principles upon indigenous)
Association (respect for cultural differences)

Socio Cultural Attitude
British system of power had resulted in merchants, traders land holders to have more power because of commercial superior local level was removed, shows in physical morphology

Experimental Terrain
French: tried to blend colonial style with traditional motifs, they saw the colonial cities as experimental grounds.
English: less interference, but few improvements
Colonial had to be better to show the grandeur of the nation, so no slums.

Spatial Manifestation of Col. Policy
Colonial powers: do things their own way, without local participation.
In the colonisation, the difference in civilisation evolution is so abrupt that no matter how, the natural growth of the city is altered.

Comparison of the British and the French Colonial Urban Morphology

Weak politics led to the compensation in architectural terms, ending up in buildings with a lot of authority.

Concluding remarks

The colonial legacy is still present because of strong social classification

European rulers were replaced by local = same privileged areas, just as bad

Assimilation of different architecture may eventually give direction to valid and authentic architecture and urban morphology suited to land and people.

‘Urban highways and the reluctant public realm’

written by Jacqueline Tatom,
in [2006] The Landscape Urbanism Reader, Charles Waldheim editor , pp.179-195.

short summary

The article explores the design of highways as landscape urbanism opportunity, looking at specific cases throughout history integrating landscape architecture, civil engineering and architecture. Today tendency seems to propose concrete and asphalt ‘downstairs’ circulation domain of civil engineers and public open ‘upstairs’ plazas and streets designed by architects and planners. Highways are public spaces representing an urbanistic opportunity of public realm places design, combining architecture and landscape, moving ‘from utility to amenity, from infrastructure to urbanism’. The author points out the need of reviewing the canonical urban road system design, describing cases of coexistence of efficient circulation and creation of public places for modern life.

The four cases considered the Parisian boulevards, the Boston parkways, New York’s Hudson parkway and the Barcelona Cinturón share the common attempt of complex urban renovation, redressing degraded sanitary conditions and improving the quality of life. These projects have all a heterogeneous program of improvements, including cultural facilities and public spaces.

The Boulevards of Paris are deeply imbedded in the urban fabric conceived as three-dimensional public spaces for vehicular and pedestrian, commerce and leisure. The programmatic heterogeneity enriches the experience of the city.

Designed by Olmsted with his partner Eliot, the Emerald Necklace of Boston, turned a wasted swampy area into an urbanistic opportunity, on one hand, managing the hydrological problems of the Charles River of storm water and sewer overflows, and on the other hand, fulfilling circulation and recreational needs. As the Parisian boulevard, this project operates at local and metropolitan scale, addressing particular and comprehensive scopes, answering infrastructural needs and providing public spaces. Infrastructure and nature are co-partner into the place-making process for people to be.

The Hudson parkway designed by Robert Moses and completed in 1937 blends landscape, infrastructure and urbanization. The multifunctional program involved upgrading transportation, sanitizing creeks and rivers, creating parks and cultural amenities. Within this urban landscape the tranquillity of strolls coexist with the vehicular rush, this juxtaposition of different experience characterizes the urban life.

As the precious cases the Barcelona Cinturón realised between the 80s and 90s is a metropolitan element aiming to provide private and public transportation and public amenities and complementing the inner-city road network and the citywide system of parks and plazas. This project is characterized by a rich program and deals with difficult topographic conditions. The leftover of the highways are turned into housing and public facilities areas, creating a thick urban edge. The parks and recreational areas included in the design become even more articulate where the highway aligns with the waterfront, in Moll de la Fusta.

These projects are important reference of the shifting of highways design from utility to urbanism, from liability to opportunity. As Prof. Tatom wrote, ‘the design of urban highways can then truly be conceived as the design of public realm’.

Critical analysis of the 2002 KDA plan and masterplan from 1961

The existing Master Plan for Khulna City was prepared in 1961 and consists of 4 documents. First a strategic plan: a long term policy guideline (20 years), for long term urban development emphasising decentralisation of development activities with focus on participatory planning, evolving appropriate strategies, making realistic assumptions and a formulation of strategic options, based on certain assumptions and forecasts.

Planning vision: to remove long stagnation of the city by revitalizing its growth and to make it a poverty free, liveable and economically vibrant city.

The 1961 master plan was prepared in Macro framework. Most of the proposals were made in the form of outlines, instead of programmes and projects, and can be classified in four categories: land use, basic infrastructure, development and plan implementation. The plan made a number of specific proposals but few were implemented.

2002 Planning strategies:
1. development of strategic infrastructure
2. creation of employment opportunities
3. densification of existing urban areas
4. lateral physical growth for a compact shape
5. poverty alleviation and promotion of spatial Equity
6. regional integration
7. rural urban linkages
8. provision of public utilities and services
9. growth management

2002 Strategic options:
- Make a number of strategic infrastructure, Rupsha Bridge, Mongla port and airport, completion Dhaka mawa road.

mapping of the jute mills and their changing relation to the city morphology

After 1950 Khulna witnessed a significant industrial progress. The jute mills came into operation during this period (1954-71). All are sponsored by the former East Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation.

From a first mapping of the mills, their location within important industrial areas as Kalishpur, Daulatpur and Atra is evident. Further their proximity to waterways and the railway line is strategic for the import of raw material and the export of the end products.

Meaning of Water in Islamic Urbanism

Islam originated within a harsh, desert climate and hence water is seen as a scarce resource meant to be revered and preserved. Islam ascribes to water qualities such life-giving, sustaining, purifying resource… It considers water as the origin of all life on earth. The water of rain, rivers and fountains is considered benevolent, meant to wash away sins. Islamic Law emphasizes on the fair and equitable distribution of water to everyone within a community. Water is also used as a symbolization of Paradise; Quranic references to cooling rivers, fresh rain, fountains of flavoured drinking water in Paradise, show that water is the essence of the gardens of Paradise.

1. Purification through ablution – obligatory component in Islamic prayer ritual.
- The oju-khana within the mosque serves this function.
2. Water tanks, springs, fountains - mostly still representation of water i.e. in its calm state in gardens and within fort complexes. Persian gardens, tomb complexes etc. exhibit these. Eg. Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir, Humayun’s Tomb in Lucknow.
3. Construction of summer palaces, combined with mosques with existing water bodies such as lakes. The lakes are bounded within a geometric edge wall. Eg. Sarkhej in Ahmedabad.
4. There is no concrete reference of natural water-bodies such as rivers or seas (flowing water) as a factor in planning of an Islamic city, or of its presence playing a major part in urbanization. Such phenomena are mainly for scenic viewing and pleasure activities.

Riverfronts have been a major factor for urbanisation and constitute an integral part of Hindu daily life. Khulna was once part of Bengal, eastern India, and was pre-dominantly Hindu in history. Rivers in the Islamic context have been harnessed for irrigation, drawing of canals for water supply to the city, fort and palace complexes. There does not seem to be a direct relation with the riverfront and daily Islamic life.

Historical and potential links

Khulna is a post Industrial River city, located in one of the largest river delta’s in the world at high elevation of natural levee of west side of the Rupsa and Bhairab riverbeds. The History there shows that there is a link between Calcutta and Khulna through railway and water, where commercial and trade were established by the British colonial era. Railway used for transportation of Jute, rice, tobacco, sugar cane, wood, and other raw materials produced along the river front.

After division of India in 1947, Bangladesh become independent in 1971, no more effort was made in terms of infrastructure to overcome the conditions of the link between the two cities due to political misunderstanding. Currently the boarder of India and Bangladesh doesn’t allow any access neither by river nor railway.

The existing river kabadak could save for transportation purposes and be a link between Khulna and Calcutta.

River and The City

Rivers have been an important transportation channel in the early history of Asian cities, colonized by the British and used as colonial trading ports used as a navigable and the major transport system in the region with a huge traffic flow. River has always been seen as a sacred place for many religions, for e.g. a dip in the ocean, where the river drains into the sea is considered to be one of great religious significance. Cities like Banaras, Hoogly (India) have adapted itself to this kind of sacred value.

The river provides perennial supply of water to the plain of Bangladesh and West Bengal for irrigation and human & industry consumption. With the exploding urban growth the proper development of waterfronts in Asian cities has become a major issue not just for the livability of the city for its residents but also in terms of branding and positioning that city. Could a public/private partnership help in developing this kind of development?.

It has become a major component of the competitive advantage of the city and requires an approach to design, execution and on-going place management that maximizes the return on investment. The development of Khulna has been turning its back on the river which was once used as a transport medium and a lot of industrial and employment setup along its edge. The planning of the new highway by-passing the city would also be a major drawback in the expansion of the city away from the water edge creating derelict pockets of potential development of industrial lands within the city.

The Sundarbans

[“Green &Water-Scapes”]

In the south western part of Bangladesh, in the district of greater Khulna, lies the Sundarbans, "the beautiful forest." It is a virgin forest which until recently owed nothing to human endeavour and yet nature has laid it out with as much care as a planned pleasure ground.

It is a collage of different tissue patterns as visible in the plan of sundarbans area and its surrounding. It is a habitat of the world famous Royal Bengal Tiger, spotted deer, crocodiles, jungle fowl, wild boar, lizards, rhesus monkey and an innumerable variety of beautiful birds.

Fish further add to the serene natural beauty of the Sundarbans. They provide livelihood to approximately 160,000 people.

[1994, pg 11]

The mapping of the soft areas recognises the Bay of Bengal as a base of the sprawling forest as potentials that might be instrumental tool in shaping of a green and water-scapes for the design.

On mangrove

The mangrove forest [Sundarbans, meaning ‘Beautiful Forest’] is mainly divided into two types, the ‘freshwater’ forest, with the lowest level of salinity and the ‘moderately saltwater’ forest. Man, wind, rivers and animals constitute the main threats to the destruction of this forest. In 1907, Prain recorded 245 genera and 334 plant species. Mangrove forest represents the resource of large part of the industrial economy, Excoecaria agallocha wood, for instance is largely used in the newspaper mills industry.

The Sundarbans forest is populated by 4 million people, most of them living without shelter. Professor Hazra declared in the BBC News: ‘the Sundarbans appears to be a lost cause’. 6000 families have lost their home in the last two decades. Scientists believe 1000 sq km will be inundated due to one metre rise of the sea level within the next 50 years. Professor Hazra predicts 15% of habitable area will be lost by 2020, displacing 30.000 people.

Research: Case Studies Post Industrial Sites

Through a number of projects on the re-use of post industrial sites, a basic practical frame can be provided to project upon the Khulna cases. Since there are already many examples to be found, the investigation will be narrowed down by extrapolating characteristics of the Khulna context and selecting projects that hold similar situation within them.

Because of this starting point, the projects themselves can become relevant for Khulna context and can hold in themselves already part of the solution or kick off point for re-adapting the Khulna post industrial sites to present needs.

If possible and the information is present, a mapping of the post industrial sites and their specification of the characteristics will be very useful for the continuation of the studio.

Climate change: projected effects on Bangladesh

Because of its location, Bangladesh has to face a number of natural problems as well as socio-economic ones. The low lying Ganges-Brahmaputra river delta makes up the major part of the country, which makes it sensitive to flooding. Moreover, tropical cyclones and droughts have caused catastrophes in the past. The predicted climate change will aggravate the situation in the densely populated country – these are some of the issues that have to be dealt with

• Khulna is located on a natural levee along the Bhairab-Rupsha banks (4 m above MSL), which protects the city from tidal floods, even with a sea level rise of 1 m. (7)
• Climate change scenarios indicate the possibility of more serious riverflooding (larger predicted peak discharges), affecting mainly central and north-eastern Bangladesh. (5)
• Water shortages (as well as acute moisture stress) will affect western Bangladesh during the dry months. (2)
• Climate change will cause an increase in salinity in the already affected soils in the coastal regions, which will impact the fragile ecological system of the Sundarbans. Local farmers are left with no alternative than to begin raising shrimp where they once grew crops. (1)
• Indirectly, climate change will aggravate health conditions, poverty etc. (3),(6)

(1) Agrawala, S., e.a., Development and climate change in Bangladesh: focus on coastal flooding and the Sundarbans, OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2003.
(2) Alam M., e.a., Impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in Asia, UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), 2007.
(3) Brouwer, R., e.a., “Socioeconomic vulnerability and adaptation to environmental risk: A case study of climate change and flooding in Bangladesh”, in: Risk Analysis, 27 (2007) 2, pp. 313-326.
(4) Huq. S., e.a., Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change for Bangladesh, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1999 (via http://www.sdnbd.org/).
(5) Monrirul Quader Mirza, M., e.a., "The implications of climate change on floods of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers in Bangladesh Climatic Change", in: Climatic Change, 2003 (57) 3, pp. 287-318.
(6) Nelson, D.I., e.a., “Health impact assessment of climate change in Bangladesh”, in: Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 23 (2003) 3, pp. 323-341.
(7) USAID (United States Agency for International Development), Environmental Mapping and Workbook for Khulna city, Urban and rural Planning Discipline, Khulna University, 1999.

Illustrations:
Students Wageningen University, ‘Scenarios’ presentation, 11 February 2008.
Der Spiegel Online, Photo Gallery: Prawns in the rice field, <http://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/0,5538,21321,00.html/> (accessed 12 February 2008).
Sustainable Development Networking Programme Bangladesh (SDNP-SDNBD), World Environment Day (2004-2006), <http://www.sdnbd.org/> (accessed 12 February 2008).

case studies water purification

RELEVANT CASE STUDIES – WATER PURIFICATION PROJECTS IN URBAN CONTEXT.

Water is interwoven with the city of Khulna on different levels and in different scale. The water network knows a strong hierarchy: the river, dens network of waterways in the South-East of the city, the ponds within.
This strong hierarchy and presence in the city can be reflected in the approach of water purification within the city. In other words it can be introduced in different scales and levels. It can be interwoven in the lagooning of the natural landscape. Within the city it can be incorporated in de reviewing of the post-industrial sites.
Relevant case studies:
Harnes, Pas de Calais, France, 2005 Francois Xavier Mosquet
Homebush Bay, Sydney
In local scale water treatment can be introduced in residential neighborhoods linked to the ponds. Water treatment can generate open and public space.
Relevant case study: aerated lagoon in Ho Chi Minh City (article Kelly Shannon)
Relevant literature:
Izembart H, Le Boudec B, Waterscapes, Using plant systems to treat wastewater, Land&ScapeSeries

shrimp farming

The main spatial impact of shrimp farming is that what was once agricultural land, changes into shrimp ponds. And this is a quiet irreversible spatial effect as the saline water of the ponds affects the soil. The land becomes unfit for agriculture and local flora.

The shrimp cultivation makes the living standard of the locals slightly better, but the big profits go to people outside of Khulna[1]. Viruses start to spread easily when there are lots of ponds together, so the slightly better living standard of the people is quiet uncertain.
Moreover the employment rate for the same amount of land is lower than with agriculture.

As the saline water makes growing rice impossible, conflicts occur between shrimp and rice farmers of the same village. The government tries to mix in these conflicts and has the policy to support the rice farmers as rice becomes more scarce and more expensive.[2]

Interesting to know is that shrimp ponds don’t mind to be flood once and a while. They need the saline water of the river and the water flushes the diseases away. [3]

______________

main source: RAHMAN, Matiur, “Geo-political economy of shrimp culture and livelihood shift in southwestern Bangladesh” in: RAHMAN, Matiur (ed.), Globalisation, environmental crisis and social change in Bangladesh, The University Press Limited, Dhaka, 2003, pp. 247-293.
[1] Professor Sarma
[2] Bangladesh Agricultural Development Cooperation
[3] locals

Latest version base map CAD

http://sendit.wur.nl/retrieve.aspx?id=b1476885-063e-49f7-a550-c50ba157c356

practical: train on Sunday 17 February

For the people leaving from Leuven to the airport this Sunday, the idea is that we will take the train at 08.09am (in Leuven) together. That way we arrive in group at the airport. I will buy the tickets beforehand to avoid the queues that morning.

Welcome

Khulna Urban Region Studio Blog, KUL2008

Welcome to the Khulna Urban Region Studio Blog, KUL2008.

This design studio is part of the Master of Human Settlements, Master of Urbanism and Strategic Planning and European Master of Urbanism of the KULeuven, Belgium. This studio is taught by Kelly Shannon and Ward Verbakel. The University of Wageningen runs a parallel studio in their Landscape Architecture master.

Students are asked to post the result of their studio progress at the end of each week. Posts are limited to 1 image and a short text paragraph. Exceptions can be discussed in advance during studio. Each Monday morning will start with a group discussion of the posted work.